Last week, we featured an article on how to avoid some of America’s most common and dangerous predatory mammals—namely bears, mountain lions, and wolves. This week, we’ll be continuing the same theme, but thinking a little smaller. While the three large predators we focused on last week can certainly pose a threat to survival in the wild, smaller unseen species can be equally dangerous, if not statistically more so.

Remember the 2012 study we cited from the Wilderness & Environmental Medicine Journal? Of the 1,802 animal-related fatalities recorded between 1999 and 2007, 643 were attributed to “venomous snakes and lizards”, “venomous spiders”, “scorpions”, and “hornets, wasps, and bees”. Note that this doesn’t even include non-venomous species of spiders, scorpions, or snakes. It’s also a third of all recorded animal-related fatalities—that’s nothing to scoff at.

So, let’s break down those four categories. First, you have the venomous snakes and lizards. There are only two venomous lizards native to the North American continent—the Mexican beaded lizard and the Gila monster—and only a tiny population of Gila monsters can be found in the United States. The odds of encountering and being attacked by a Gila monster are infinitesimal, so we’ll be omitting them from our discussion and focusing solely on venomous snakes. In our next category, we’ll be combining the two arachnids, spiders and scorpions, as their behaviors and defense strategies are similar. Finally, we’ll talk about aggressive stinging insects—hornets, wasps, and bees.

Snakes

Appearance: Several types of venomous snakes can be found in the United States, with the four most common being the rattlesnake, the cottonmouth (aka water moccasin), the copperhead, and the coral snake. The first three are classified as pit vipers, and have broad heads with heat-sensing pit organs located between the eye and the nostril. All pit vipers are venomous, so if you see a triangular or diamond-shaped head with openings near the nostrils, keep your distance. Copperheads and cottonmouths are found primarily in the southeastern third of the U.S., but rattlesnakes are found in virtually every state except Alaska.

All varieties of rattlesnake have rattles on their tails (hence the name) and often have a mottled pattern of tan, brown, and black scales. Cottonmouths have a thick brown to black body, and a light “cotton”-colored mouth. Copperheads are usually tan to copper in color, and have a repeating hourglass pattern on their backs.

The coral snake is in its own category, with a slender head and tri-colored bands. You’ve probably heard some variation of the saying “Red on yellow, kill a fellow. Red on black, venom lack.” This can often help identify coral snakes in North America, thanks to their touching bands of red and yellow coloration. However, it’s not always true, so don’t go handling snakes with red-on-black bands (or any other unknown snake, for that matter). Coral snakes are found primarily in the southern coastal states.

Behavior: Pit vipers are typically nocturnal, and most human encounters take place at dusk or dawn. Pit vipers are also ambush predators, and hunt by waiting for prey to approach them—therefore they pose a great threat to humans who stumble upon them at close range. Rattlesnakes (the most common pit vipers in America) may rattle their tails before striking, but cottonmouths and copperheads have no such defense mechanism. Generally, a coiled stance, a raised head, and direct eye contact indicates the snake is preparing to strike.

Coral snakes have extremely potent venom, but are also a minimal danger to humans, with only one reported fatality in the U.S. since 1967. They are generally reclusive, and spend most of their lives under leaf cover, underground, or in some cases, in slow-moving bodies of water such as swamps. You probably won’t ever see a coral snake, but if you do, it will likely be trying to avoid you.

Avoidance Strategy: Snakes prefer resting in cool, dark places most of the day, so be very cautious when moving through thick undergrowth, or when overturning stones or logs. Extra caution should be taken at sunrise and sunset during warm months, as most snakes are active under these conditions. Stick to paths and areas with good ground visibility, and avoid tall grass or brush when possible. Snakes such as the Western Diamondback are experts at camouflage, and can easily hide in plain sight. Most importantly—practice situational awareness, and look and listen carefully before you move.

Defense Strategy: If you see a snake, leave it alone! Never approach within 6 to 10 feet. Carrying a walking stick is wise, as it may enable you to strike and stun the snake if it gets too close. If you spend a lot of time in snake territory, invest in some protective gaiters—they might save your life. Firearms such as shotguns can also be highly effective, but be certain to destroy the snake’s head.

Arachnids (Spiders and Scorpions)

Appearance: The two most dangerous spiders in the United States are the black widow and the brown recluse. Bites from both spiders can cause anaphylaxis, tissue necrosis, infection, or very rarely death. Black widows are widespread throughout the states, and have a distinctive black body with a red hourglass marking. Brown recluses, also called fiddlebacks after the dark violin shape on their thorax, are beige to brown with only six eyes. Recluse spiders reside mostly in the southeast and midwest.

Scorpions are found throughout much of the U.S., but the highest concentrations are in the southwestern states. No scorpion in the U.S. has venom powerful enough to kill a healthy adult on its own. However, scorpion stings have the potential to cause anaphylactic shock, necrosis, or infection if left untreated. The 2- to 3-inch light brown Arizona bark scorpion is the most venomous species native to North America.

Behavior: Black widows can be identified by their erratic, tangled web patterns, and are usually found in cluttered dark areas. Brown recluse webs often form bunched-up cave-like shelters in dry wood piles and tree bark. Both spiders will generally try to avoid human contact, and only bite as a last resort.

Scorpions are ambush predators, often hiding underground or under rocks as they wait for prey to approach.  These arachnids are more active and mobile at night during the warm months, but tend to hibernate during the colder months. When threatened, they may raise their claws and stinger before striking.

Avoidance Strategy: Since both spiders and scorpions favor dark corners, crevices, and cluttered spaces, avoid reaching into or touching these areas. If you’re gathering wood or bark for a fire, you may want to use a knife or hatchet to dislodge it before handling. Most bites and stings occur when humans unknowingly surprise these arachnids, so give them fair warning before disturbing their habitats, and they’ll likely avoid you. Remember, you look like a predator to them, and they’ll only defend themselves if it’s absolutely necessary.

Defense Strategy: Wearing gloves, shoes, and covering exposed skin will dramatically limit your risk of injury. Unlike snakes, most arachnids won’t be able to penetrate fabric. Avoid sleeping on the ground or near fallen logs or other debris. Always check unattended clothing, blankets, and shoes before putting them on, and if a black light is available, use it—many arachnids will glow under UV light.

Spider bites and scorpion stings to healthy adults who receive modern medical treatment rarely result in death. However, in a survival situation, antivenom and professional medical care may not be available. So, care must be taken to avoid necrosis, anaphylactic shock, or infection from bites. Carry an epi-pen or other epinephrine source in case of allergic reactions, and be aware that even if you’re not allergic to bees or wasps, you may still be allergic to arachnid venom.

Bees, Wasps and Hornets

Appearance: Honey bees are commonly seen throughout North America, although their population has been dwindling rapidly over the last decade. Honey bees are generally not aggressive to humans, unless defending a hive. However, some varieties such as the “Africanized” or “killer” bees found in the southern U.S. may be more aggressive than others. Bees can typically only sting humans once, as it causes their barbed stinger to be torn out and remain in the skin, leading to their death.

Wasps and hornets differ from bees in that they can sting repeatedly without dying. There is only one true hornet species in the U.S., and most “hornet” sightings are actually wasps. Although many types of wasps are solitary and not aggressive, yellowjackets and paper wasps often do sting humans. Wasps are found in almost every state.

Behavior: Most honey bees only sting in defense of the hive, and will pursue victims for approximately 30 feet. However, Africanized bees may be much more aggressive and can pursue victims for ten times that distance. Individual bees can release pheromones that attract other members of the colony, so if you see a few aggressive bees, more could be on their way.

Yellowjackets are extremely aggressive, and can be identified by their bright yellow-orange stripes and rapid side-to-side flight pattern before landing. Paper wasps are darker in color, and highly territorial around their paper-like nests, but generally only sting when their nest is disturbed.

Avoidance Strategy: Avoid any visible insect hives  whenever possible. Watch for concentrations of bees or wasps entering and exiting an area repeatedly, as this may indicate a hive. Cover as much skin as possible, and do not leave ripe fruits, drink containers, or other food waste outdoors near your camp site. Never try to swat or crush bees or wasps, and avoid rapid movements around them.

Defense Strategy: Bees, wasps, and hornets killed 509 people in the United States between 1999 and 2007, primarily because of repeated stings leading to and anaphylactic shock. However, many repeated stings in a short period can kill, even if you’re not allergic. Getting tested for insect sting allergies ahead of time could save your life, and it’s wise to carry an epi-pen (or two) as well as antihistamines such as Benadryl. If stung or pursued, leave the area, and immediately seek shelter in a car or enclosed space. Brush away bee stingers with your fingernail (don’t squeeze), and use a cold compress and elevation to reduce swelling.

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In modern televised media, animal attacks are often exaggerated to the point of appearing ridiculous. You’ve probably seen one of the many TV shows we’re referring to. The deep-voiced narrator ominously recounts the gory details of an animal attack as slow-motion video of teeth, fangs, and claws flash on the screen. It seems outlandish, to say the least. In this day and age, with all our modern weapons, technology, and medical advancements, are animal attacks really still a threat? Statistically speaking, yes they are—especially if you’re an outdoorsman, hiker, or survivalist.

A 2012 study in the Wilderness & Environmental Medicine Journal analyzed mortality data from the CDC,  and found that 1,802 people were fatally injured by animals between 1999 and 2007 in the United States. At first glance, this may seem like a relatively small number, but keep in mind that it only refers to reported fatalities—thousands more were seriously injured, and may have died if it weren’t for immediate medical treatment. In a true survival scenario, you may not have access to medical care, so it’s crucial to know what you’re up against before heading out into the wild.

So, what should you do in case of an animal attack? We’ve answered this question for three of America’s most common and dangerous mammals, and also provided evasion strategies that may help you avoid being attacked in the first place.

Note: The information presented in this article is general in nature. Always consult with experts and take every precaution before interacting with or approaching any potentially dangerous animal.

Bears

Appearance: Black bears and grizzly or Alaskan brown bears are the most common types in the United States. Black bears are smaller, averaging around 300-400 pounds, and have fur ranging from jet black to blond as well as a lighter-colored muzzle. Grizzly or Alaskan brown bears average at 800-1500 pounds, and have longer brown fur with pronounced shoulder humps.

Geographic Location: Black bears can be found throughout the U.S., but are most common in the northeast and northwest, as well as the Rocky Mountains and Alaska. Brown and grizzly bears are found primarily in the northwest and Alaska.

Behavioral Patterns: In most instances, a bear will act defensively around humans. It may open and shut its jaws, snort, swat the ground, or charge short distances to scare you away. If you surprise a bear at close range, or it approaches within 20 to 30 feet of you, an attack is much more likely.

Here’s an example of a “bluff charge” used by a grizzly bear on a group of fishermen. When the charge fails to scare them away, the bear becomes less aggressive.

Avoidance Strategy: If you encounter a any bear at a distance, speak in a calm monotone voice, and attempt to maintain visual contact while backing away slowly. Black bears (and ONLY black bears) may be discouraged by standing tall and yelling or making loud noises—but never try this with a brown bear or grizzly! With brown or grizzly bears, back away slowly and leave the area, but do not turn your back, run, or make sudden movements.

Defense Strategy: If a bear gets within 20-30 feet or makes physical contact, how you should react depends on the type of bear. Bear spray or mace is always the best option, and has been proven to be almost twice as effective at deterring a charging bear than even a large-caliber firearm. If the attack involves a surprised grizzly bear or a mother grizzly with cubs, roll onto your stomach and play dead while covering your head and neck with your hands. Then remain stationary until the bear leaves the area. In any other case, or in a prolonged attack, kick, punch, or stab the bear’s face, eyes, and nose.

Below, a hunter perched in a tree encounters a curious black bear, which climbed up to reach him:

 Mountain Lions / Cougars / Panthers

Appearance: Healthy adult male mountain lions tend to be about 140 pounds, 2 to 3 feet tall at the shoulder, and tan in color with a lighter underbody. Mountain lions are also known as cougars or panthers, and share similar biology (but different coloration) to the leopards and jaguars found outside the United States.

Geographic Location: The Mountain Lion Foundation claims there are approximately 20,000-40,000 mountain lions in the United States, virtually all of which reside in the western half of the country. Most mountain lions are found west of the Rocky Mountains, although there is a small population of about 100 in Florida.

Behavioral Patterns: Mountain lions are camouflage experts, and rarely make themselves seen to humans, preferring to hide in dense undergrowth. They hunt primarily at night, dusk, and dawn, and typically kill a single deer (their primary prey) every 10 to 14 days. When hunting or preparing to attack, mountain lions crouch low to the ground, maintain direct eye contact, and creep slowly towards their prey, almost always attacking from the side or rear.

A group of Coyotes in Yosemite National Park fend off a Mountain Lion. Fortunately for the coyotes, the mountain lion wasn’t looking for a fight:

Avoidance Strategy:  Be alert, as most attacks are sneak attacks. When encountering a mountain lion at a distance of more than 50 yards, stand tall, remain calm, and slowly back away while maintaining visual contact. Do not turn your back or run, act imposing, and appear as large as possible. If the animal approaches closer or shows interest, make loud noises and throw rocks or sticks in its direction. If the mountain lion gets within 25 yards, prepare for an attack.

Defense Strategy: Similar to bears, pepper spray or mace is a very effective deterrent. Firearms may also be effective, but mountain lions can run 40-50 miles per hour and will be difficult to hit at close range. Try to remain standing, since mountain lions target the head and neck. If you’re knocked down, strike or stab at the head and eyes.

Canines (Wolves and Wild Dogs)

Appearance: The average North American grey wolf or timber wolf is approximately 110 pounds, stands 2.5-3 feet at the shoulder, and has fur that is mottled gray and brown. For comparison, an average domesticated German Shepherd is 2 feet at the shoulder and 75-95 pounds. Although domesticated dogs have substantially different physiology from their wolf ancestors, defense strategies against wolves should generally work against wild dogs as well. If observing animal tracks in the wild, wolves tend to produce “single tracks” by placing their rear foot onto the mark made by their front foot, while domestic dog tracks have staggered dual front and rear foot track patterns.

Geographic Location: Wolves tend to occupy the midwest and northwest United States, with a smaller population present in the southwest. There is also a substantial wolf presence throughout Alaska and Canada. Wolf population density is generally low, with each 5-7 member wolf pack covering a territory of approximately 70 square miles. After falling drastically in the past, wolf population is once again on the rise in the United States, and the western gray wolf was removed from the endangered species list in 2008.

Behavioral Patterns: Wolf attacks on healthy adults are rare, but wolves are opportunists, so they may target the weak, the injured, or young children. Wolves hunt by working in packs and forcing their prey animals to run, often to the point of exhaustion. Wolves also use their presence to intimidate prey, and use environmental obstacles such as deep snow or bodies of water to their advantage. They then surround the prey and attack in groups. Rabies-induced aggression has also proven to be a factor in many wolf attacks on humans, though it is less prevalent in wolves within the U.S. than Europe or Asia.

Avoidance Strategy: If you see a wolf at a distance, do not make direct eye contact, and do not run. Take a non-aggressive stance and back away slowly, but maintain visual. If the wolf continues to pursue you, or displays aggressive behavior such as baring its teeth, try the opposite tactic—make loud noises and appear as large as possible. This may discourage the animal long enough for you to escape or climb a tree.

Defense Strategy: As with other mammals, pepper spray and firearms can be used. If you’re knocked down, try to protect your neck and head, and target the wolf’s eyes and throat. Choking the animal has even been proven to work in some cases.